Keywords
How to Cite
Abstract
Agricultural intensification in sugar cane irrigation systems poses significant challenges to the sustainability of water resources and the preservation of associated ecosystems. This study aimed to evaluate the technical performance of irrigation and its hydro-environmental impact in the San Carlos Agricultural and Industrial Society, a company founded in 1897 dedicated to the cultivation, processing and distribution of sugar and agricultural by-products, Committed to sustainable production practices, efficient use of water, bagasse power cogeneration and certified environmental management. The research was developed through a mixed approach, based on a systematic literature review under the PRISMA methodology, which covered scientific sources indexed in Scopus, Web of Science, Taylor & Francis and Emerald, together with the international standards ISO 14046 and ISO 24120 and the FAO guidelines. A structured survey of agricultural technicians was applied to correlate theoretical information with empirical evidence of the hydraulic and environmental performance of the irrigation system. The results show that, although there are high-efficiency technologies (drip irrigation with >90% efficiency), Ingenio maintains a predominance of gravity irrigation and mangers, with moderate efficiency and significant losses by runoff and percolation. In addition, environmental effects were identified from the simultaneous use of agrochemicals under over-irrigation conditions. It is concluded that the optimization of irrigation requires greater technification, permanent monitoring and continuous training, key elements to move towards an efficient agricultural model, resilient and aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 6 and 12).
References
Ashour, M. A., Ali, Y. M., Hasan, A. E., & Abu-Zaid, T. S. (2025). A field study on replacing traditional flood irrigation of sugarcane crop in upper Egypt with drip irrigation technique. Applied Water Science, 15(8). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-025-02554-7
Azghadi, M. R., Olsen, A., Wood, J., Saleh, A., Calvert, B., Granshaw, T., Fillols, E., & Philippa, B. (2024). Precision robotic spot-spraying: Reducing herbicide use and enhancing environmental outcomes in sugarcane. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2401.13931
Banco Mundial. (2021, 14 de julio). En Ecuador, el riego tecnificado equivale a cultivos más sostenibles y mejor alimentación. World Bank. https://n9.cl/dh2kd
Bhatt, R., Kumar, R., Kashyap, L., Alataway, A., Dewidar, A. Z., & Mattar, M. A. (2022). Growth, yield, quality and insect-pests in sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) as affected by differential regimes of irrigation and potash under stressed conditions. Agronomy, 12(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12081942
Bonsucro. (2023). What does the Bonsucro label mean? https://n9.cl/kg7ory
Brauman, K. A., & Viart, N. (2015). Development of a regionally sensitive water-productivity indicator to identify sustainable practices for sugarcane growers. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 12(4), 811-820. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.1744
Cardozo, N. P., de Oliveira Bordonal, R., & La Scala, N. (2018). Sustainable intensification of sugarcane production under irrigation systems, considering climate interactions and agricultural efficiency. Journal of Cleaner Production, 204, 861-871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.004
Carriço, N., Felícissimo, D., Antunes, A., & Luz, P. B. D. (2025). Simulating water application efficiency in pressurized irrigation systems: A computational approach. Water, 17(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/w17081217
Chukalla, A. D., Mul, M. L., van der Zaag, P., van Halsema, G., Mubaya, E., Muchanga, E., Den Besten, N., & Karimi, P. (2022). A framework for irrigation performance assessment using WaPOR data: The case of a sugarcane estate in Mozambique. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 26(10), 2759-2778. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-2759-2022
Demissew, A., Hawaria, D., Kibret, S., Animut, A., Tsegaye, A., Lee, M.-C., Yan, G., & Yewhalaw, D. (2020). Impact of sugarcane irrigation on malaria vector Anopheles mosquito fauna, abundance and seasonality in Arjo-Didessa, Ethiopia. Malaria Journal, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-020-03416-0
European Commission. (2025, 25 de junio). Key policy objectives of the CAP 2023-27. https://n9.cl/5p6nps
Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO). (2022). La FAO y los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2063es
Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO). (2023). The state of food and agriculture 2023. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc7724en
Ferreira dos Santos, J. W., Sampaio Reis, L., dos Santos Dias, M., Silva dos Santos, R. H., de Assis da Silva, F., & de Oliveira Santos, J. P. (2022). Efficiency and uniformity of a subsurface drip irrigation system in sugarcane crop. Revista de Agricultura Neotropical, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.32404/rean.v9i1.6829
Gordillo Peralta, N. D. (2022). Determinación de los procesos de fabricación del azúcar y análisis de la producción de seis ingenios azucareros del Ecuador [Examen complexivo, Universidad Técnica de Machala].
Huang, W., Lu, Y., Chen, L., Sun, D., & An, Y. (2021). Impact of pesticide/fertilizer mixtures on the rhizosphere microbial community of field-grown sugarcane. 3 Biotech, 11(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-021-02770-3
Ingenio San Carlos. (2023). Quiénes somos. https://www.sancarlos.com.ec/empresa/quienes-somos/
International Labour Organization, Vision Zero Fund, & Safety + Health for All (Programme). (2025). Incentivos y limitaciones para la seguridad y salud en el trabajo en la cadena de suministro de la caña de azúcar en Colombia. https://doi.org/10.54394/SRTO3744
Jamis, J. (2024, 26 de noviembre). Strengthening Bonsucro’s assurance system: What’s coming? Bonsucro. https://bonsucro.com/strengthening-bonsucro-assurance-system/
Kapetch, P. (2021). Sugarcane water footprint under rainfed and irrigation conditions of some major production areas. Thai Agricultural Research Journal, 39(2), 172-185. https://doi.org/10.14456/thaidoa-agres.2021.2
Karim, R., Reading, L., Dawes, L., Dahan, O., & Orr, G. (2023). Pesticide transport through the vadose zone under sugarcane in the Wet Tropics, Australia. SOIL, 9(2), 381-398. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-9-381-2023
Koech, R., & Langat, P. (2018). Improving irrigation water use efficiency: A review of advances, challenges and opportunities in the Australian context. Water, 10(12), 1771. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121771
Ministerio del Ambiente, Agua y Transición Ecológica (MAATE). (2021). Ministerio del Ambiente, Agua y Transición Ecológica – Velará por un ambiente sano y el respeto de los derechos de la naturaleza o pacha mama. https://www.ambiente.gob.ec/
Namdarian, D., Boroomand-Nasab, S., Gorooei, A., Gaiser, T., Solymani, A., Naseri, A., & dos Santos Vianna, M. (2024). Determination of the optimum depth for subsurface dripping irrigation of sugarcane under crop residue management. Agricultural Water Management, 303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2024.109026
Naciones Unidas. (2023). The 17 goals | Sustainable development. https://sdgs.un.org/es/goals
Ogura, A. P., Moreira, R. A., da Silva, L. C. M., Negro, G. S., Freitas, J. S., da Silva Pinto, T. J., Lopes, L. F. D. P., Yoshii, M. P. C., Goulart, B. V., Montagner, C. C., & Espíndola, E. L. G. (2022). Irrigation with water contaminated by sugarcane pesticides and vinasse can inhibit seed germination and crops initial growth. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 82(3), 330-340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-022-00914-x
Pereira, R. M., Schwerz, F., Diotto, A. V., Oñate, C. A., Sandoval, M. D. V., Caron, B. O., & Cândido, B. (2025). Improving water use and sugarcane yield using irrigation strategies in Nicaragua. AgriEngineering, 7(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering7050162
Rethlefsen, M. L., Kirtley, S., Waffenschmidt, S., Ayala, A. P., Moher, D., Page, M. J., Koffel, J. B., Blunt, H., Brigham, T., Chang, S., Clark, J., Conway, A., Couban, R., de Kock, S., Farrah, K., Fehrmann, P., Foster, M., Fowler, S. A., Glanville, J., … & PRISMA-S Group. (2021). PRISMA-S: An extension to the PRISMA Statement for Reporting Literature Searches in Systematic Reviews. Systematic Reviews, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-01542-z
Sadhana, H. S., Ramu, M. S., Sharif, M., & Seemakowsar, N. (2024). Impact of drip irrigation in sugarcane cultivation in Mandya district of Karnataka, India. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 14(3), 534-542. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2024/v14i34063
Scarpare, F. V., Zotelli, L. D. C., Barizon, R., Castro, S. G. Q. D., & Bezerra, A. H. F. (2023). Leaching runoff fraction for nitrate and herbicides on sugarcane fields: Implications for grey water footprint. Sustainability, 15(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086990
Sojos Castro, E. Y., & Caicedo Camposano, O. G. (2024). Riego localizado: Innovaciones en agroecosistemas de caña de azúcar (Saccharum officinarium) en el Ecuador [Informe de investigación]. FAO AGRIS.
Som-ard, J., Atzberger, C., Izquierdo-Verdiguier, E., Vuolo, F., & Immitzer, M. (2021). Remote sensing applications in sugarcane cultivation: A review. Remote Sensing, 13(20). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13204040
Surendran, U., Jayakumar, M., & Marimuthu, S. (2016). Low cost drip irrigation: Impact on sugarcane yield, water and energy saving in semiarid tropical agro ecosystem in India. Science of The Total Environment, 573, 1430-1440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.07.144
Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53-55. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd
Villacis Jaramillo, L. J. (2020). Diseño de un sistema de riego para cultivo de caña en Tulipe [Tesis de grado, Universidad San Francisco de Quito].
Yadeta, B., Ayana, M., Yitayew, M., & Hordofa, T. (2021). Determination of water requirement and crop coefficient for sugarcane using lysimeter experiment under semiarid climatic conditions of Ethiopia. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 147(11). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0001615
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2026 Yara Samantha Loor Avila, Jaime Tinto Arandes, Daniel Andrade Pesantez